Published Date: Dec 7, 2022 | Accepted Date: Dec 7, 2022 | Submitted Date: Dec 7, 2022
Abstract
Early modern fortifications have usually been understood merely as functional defensive instruments, and therefore their cultural features are undervalued. Much has been written about them in eighteenth-century Southeast Asian ports, but not as much has been studied regarding structures constructed during the Iberian Union (1580–1640). While previous studies have explained them as European constructions, Chinese expertise on fortifications and native manpower in the Philippines might have likewise played a role. For this reason, I cross-examine the archival materials and the preserved remains of fortifications in China and the Philippines.